Apr. 14, 2025
Water-tube boilers differ from shell type boilers in that the water is circulated inside the tubes, with the heat source surrounding them. Referring back to the equation for hoop stress (Equation 3.2.1), it is easy to see that because the tube diameter is significantly smaller, much higher pressures can be tolerated for the same stress.
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Water-tube boilers are used in power station applications that require:
However, water-tube boilers are also manufactured in sizes to compete with shell boilers.
Small water-tube boilers may be manufactured and assembled into a single unit, just like packaged shell boilers, whereas large units are usually manufactured in sections for assembly on site.
Many water-tube boilers operate on the principle of natural water circulation (also known as ‘thermosiphoning’). This is a subject that is worth covering before looking at the different types of water-tube boilers that are available. Figure 3.3.2 helps to explain this principle:
However, when the pressure in the water-tube boiler is increased, the difference between the densities of the water and saturated steam falls, consequently less circulation occurs. To keep the same level of steam output at higher design pressures, the distance between the lower drum and the steam drum must be increased, or some means of forced circulation must be introduced.
Water-tube boiler sections
The energy from the heat source may be extracted as either radiant or convection and conduction.
The furnace or radiant section
This is an open area accommodating the flame(s) from the burner(s). If the flames were allowed to come into contact with the boiler tubes, serious erosion and finally tube failure would occur.
The walls of the furnace section are lined with finned tubes called membrane panels, which are designed to absorb the radiant heat from the flame.
The following layouts work on the same principles as other water-tube boilers, and are available with capacities from 5 000 kg/h to 180 000 kg/h.
Longitudinal drum boiler
The longitudinal drum boiler was the original type of water-tube boiler that operated on the thermo-siphon principle (see Figure 3.3.5).
Cooler feedwater is fed into a drum, which is placed longitudinally above the heat source. The cooler water falls down a rear circulation header into several inclined heated tubes. As the water temperature increases as it passes up through the inclined tubes, it boils and its density decreases, therefore circulating hot water and steam up the inclined tubes into the front circulation header which feeds back to the drum. In the drum, the steam bubbles separate from the water and the steam can be taken off.
Typical capacities for longitudinal drum boilers range from 2 250 kg/h to 36 000 kg/h.
The water-tube boilers described above are usually of a large capacity. However, small, special purpose, smaller waste heat boilers to be used in conjunction with land based gas turbine plants are in increasing demand.
Several types of steam generating land based gas turbine plant are used:
These systems direct the hot exhaust gases from a gas turbine (approximately 500°C) through a boiler, where saturated steam is generated and used as a plant utility.
Typical applications for these systems are on plant or sites where the demands for electricity and steam are in step and of proportions which can be matched to a CHP system.
Efficiencies can reach 90%.
These are extensions to CHP systems, and the saturated steam is taken through a superheater to produce superheated steam. The superheater may be separately fired because of the comparatively low temperature of the gas turbine exhaust. The superheated steam produced is directed to steam turbines which drive additional alternators, and generate electricity.
The turndown ratio of these plants is poor, because of the need for the turbine to rotate at a speed synchronised to the electrical frequency. This means that it is only practical to run these plants at full-load, providing the base load of steam to the plant.
Because of the relatively low temperature of the gas turbine exhaust, compared to the burner flame in a conventional boiler, a much greater boiler heat transfer area is required for a given heat load. Also, there is no need to provide accommodation for burners. For these reasons, water-tube boilers tend to provide a better and more compact solution. Because efficiency is a major factor with CHP decision-makers, the design of these boilers may well incorporate an economiser (feedwater heater).
If the plant is ‘combined cycle’ the design may also include a superheater. However, the relatively low temperatures may mean that additional burners are required to bring the steam up to the specification required for the steam turbines.
A high pressure watertube boiler[1] (also spelled water-tube and water tube) is a type of boiler in which water circulates in tubes heated externally by fire. Fuel is burned inside the furnace, creating hot gas which boils water in the steam-generating tubes. In smaller boilers, additional generating tubes are separate in the furnace, while larger utility boilers rely on the water-filled tubes that make up the walls of the furnace to generate steam.
The heated water/steam mixture then rises into the steam drum. Here, saturated steam is drawn off the top of the drum. In some[which?] services, the steam passes through tubes in the hot gas path, (a superheater) to become superheated. Superheated steam is a dry gas and therefore is typically used to drive turbines, since water droplets can severely damage turbine blades.
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Saturated water at the bottom of the steam drum returns to the lower drum via large-bore 'downcomer tubes', where it pre-heats the feedwater supply. (In large utility boilers, the feedwater is supplied to the steam drum and the downcomers supply water to the bottom of the waterwalls). To increase economy of the boiler, exhaust gases are also used to pre-heat combustion air blown into the burners, and to warm the feedwater supply in an economizer. Such watertube boilers in thermal power stations are also called steam generating units.
The older fire-tube boiler design, in which the water surrounds the heat source and gases from combustion pass through tubes within the water space, is typically a much weaker structure and is rarely used for pressures above 2.4 MPa (350 psi). A significant advantage of the watertube boiler is that there is less chance of a catastrophic failure: there is not a large volume of water in the boiler nor are there large mechanical elements subject to failure.
A water-tube boiler was patented by Blakey of England in and was made by Dallery of France in .[2]
"The ability of watertube boilers to be designed without the use of excessively large and thick-walled pressure vessels makes these boilers particularly attractive in applications that require dry, high-pressure, high-energy steam, including steam turbine power generation".[3]
Owing to their superb working properties, the use of watertube boilers is highly preferred in the following major areas:
Besides, they are frequently employed in power generation plants where large quantities of steam (ranging up to 500 kg/s) having high pressures i.e. approximately 16 megapascals (160 bar) and high temperatures reaching up to 550 °C are generally required. For example, the Ivanpah solar-power station uses two Rentech Type-D watertube boilers for plant warmup, and when operating as a fossil-fueled power station.[4]
Modern boilers for power generation are almost entirely water-tube designs, owing to their ability to operate at higher pressures. Where process steam is required for heating or as a chemical component, then there is still a small niche for fire-tube boilers. One notable exception is in typical nuclear-power stations (Pressurized Water Reactors), where the steam generators are generally configured similar to firetube boiler designs. In these applications the hot gas path through the "Firetubes" actually carries the very hot/high pressure primary coolant from the reactor, and steam is generated on the external surface of the tubes.
Their ability to work at higher pressures has led to marine boilers being almost entirely watertube. This change began around , and traced the adoption of turbines for propulsion rather than reciprocating (i.e. piston) engines – although watertube boilers were also used with reciprocating engines, and firetube boilers were also used in many marine turbine applications.
There has been no significant adoption of water-tube boilers for railway locomotives. A handful of experimental designs were produced, but none of them were successful or led to their widespread use.[5] Most water-tube railway locomotives, especially in Europe, used the Schmidt system. Most were compounds, and a few uniflows. The Norfolk and Western Railway's Jawn Henry was an exception, because it used a steam turbine combined with an electric transmission.[6]
A slightly more successful adoption was the use of hybrid water-tube / fire-tube systems. As the hottest part of a locomotive boiler is the firebox, it was an effective design to use a water-tube design here and a conventional fire-tube boiler as an economiser (i.e. pre-heater) in the usual position. One famous example of this was the USA Baldwin 4-10-2 No. , built in . Operating as a compound at a boiler pressure of 2,400 kilopascals (350 psi) it covered over 160,000 kilometres (100,000 mi) successfully. After a year though, it became clear that any economies were overwhelmed by the extra costs, and it was retired to a museum display at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.[8] A series of twelve experimental locomotives were constructed at the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's Mt. Clare shops under the supervision of George H. Emerson, but none of them was replicated in any numbers.[9]
The only railway use of water-tube boilers in any numbers was the Brotan boiler, invented by Johann Brotan in Austria in , and found in rare examples throughout Europe, although Hungary was a keen user and had around 1,000 of them. Like the Baldwin, it combined a water-tube firebox with a fire-tube barrel. The original characteristic of the Brotan was a long steam drum running above the main barrel, making it resemble a Flaman boiler in appearance.[10][11]
While the traction engine was usually built using its locomotive boiler as its frame, other types of steam road vehicles such as lorries and cars have used a wide range of different boiler types. Road transport pioneers Goldsworthy Gurney and Walter Hancock both used water-tube boilers in their steam carriages around .
Most undertype wagons used water-tube boilers. Many manufacturers used variants of the vertical cross-tube boiler, including Atkinson, Clayton, Garrett and Sentinel. Other types include the Clarkson 'thimble tube' and the Foden O-type wagon's pistol-shaped boiler.[12]
Steam fire-engine makers such as Merryweather usually used water-tube boilers for their rapid steam-raising capacity.
Many steam cars used water-tube boilers, and the Bolsover Express company even made a water-tube replacement for the Stanley Steamer fire-tube boiler.[13]
The 'D-type' is the most common type of small- to medium-sized boilers, similar to the one shown in the schematic diagram. It is used in both stationary and marine applications. It consists of a large steam drum vertically connected to a smaller water drum (a.k.a. "mud drum") via multiple steam-generating tubes. These drums and tubes as well as the oil-fired burner are enclosed by water-walls - additional water-filled tubes spaced close together so as to prevent gas flow between them. These water wall tubes are connected to both the steam and water drums, so that they act as a combination of preheaters and downcomers as well as decreasing heat loss to the boiler shell.
The M-type boilers were used in many US World War II warships including hundreds of Fletcher-class destroyers. Three sets of tubes form the shape of an M, and create a separately fired superheater that allows better superheat temperature control. In addition to the mud drum shown on a D-type boiler, an M-type has a water-screen header and a waterwall header at the bottom of the two additional rows of vertical tubes and downcomers.
The low water content boiler has a lower and upper header connected by watertubes that are directly impinged upon from the burner. This is a "furnace-less" boiler that can generate steam and react quickly to changes in load.
Designed by the American firm of Babcock & Wilcox, this type has a single drum, with feedwater drawn from the bottom of the drum into a header that supplies inclined water-tubes. The watertubes supply steam back into the top of the drum. Furnaces are located below the tubes and drum.
This type of boiler was used by the Royal Navy's Leander-class frigates and in United States Navy New Orleans-class cruisers.
The Stirling boiler has near-vertical, almost-straight watertubes that zig-zag between a number of steam and water drums. Usually there are three banks of tubes in a "four drum" layout, but certain applications use variations designed with a different number of drums and banks. They are mainly used as stationary boilers, owing to their large size, although the large grate area does also encourage their ability to burn a wide range of fuels. Originally coal-fired in power stations, they also became widespread in industries that produced combustible waste and required process steam. Paper pulp mills could burn waste bark, sugar refineries their bagasse waste. It is a horizontal drum type of boiler.
Named after its designers, the then Poplar-based Yarrow Shipbuilders, this type of three-drum boiler has three drums in a delta formation connected by watertubes. The drums are linked by straight watertubes, allowing easy tube-cleaning. This does, however, mean that the tubes enter the drums at varying angles, a more difficult joint to caulk. Outside the firebox, a pair of cold-leg pipes between each drum act as downcomers.[14]
Due to its three drums, the Yarrow boiler has a greater water capacity. Hence, this type is usually used in older marine boiler applications. Its compact size made it attractive for use in transportable power generation units during World War II. In order to make it transportable, the boiler and its auxiliary equipment (fuel oil heating, pumping units, fans etc.), turbines, and condensers were mounted on wagons to be transported by rail.
The White-Forster type is similar to the Yarrow, but with tubes that are gradually curved. This makes their entry into the drums perpendicular, thus simpler to make a reliable seal.[14]
Designed by the shipbuilder John I. Thornycroft & Company, the Thornycroft type features a single steam drum with two sets of watertubes either side of the furnace. These tubes, especially the central set, have sharp curves. Apart from obvious difficulties in cleaning them, this may also give rise to bending forces as the tubes warm up, tending to pull them loose from the tubeplate and creating a leak. There are two furnaces, venting into a common exhaust, giving the boiler a wide base tapering profile.[14]
In a forced circulation boiler, a pump is added to speed up the flow of water through the tubes.[15]
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